

Nr 9  

ISSN 2543–7321

Uniwersytet Pomorski w Słupsku

Przyjęto: 29.08.2024

Zaakceptowano: 29.08.2024

 DOI: 10.34858/SNB.9.2024.001

Wiesław Babik

Jagiellonian University in Cracow

e-mail: w.babik@uj.edu.pl

ORCID: 0000-0002-7074-8992













Abstract: Cybersecurity is one of the most important contemporary challenges and

also one of the challenges of tomorrow’s society. It concerns both the protection of the

digital sphere of information and the sustainable development of the anthropoinsphere

of the modern information society. The challenges of information security in cyberspace

focus primarily on various types of threats. In the society of tomorrow, modern infor-



security will play an important role. Assistance in recognizing them and using them

            -

dia sciences, among others. The purpose of this article is to show the potential and role of



This potential is represented by the four pillars of information security based on public

trust in information, highlighted in the text.

Zarys treści       -

-



Wiesław Babik

     -



-

woczesne technologie informacyjne i komunikacyjne, sztuczna inteligencja oraz cyfro-

-

         



-

-

-



Keywords: information security, information management, information and knowledge

society.

Słowa kluczowe       -

-

stwo informacji i wiedzy.



objectives in the defence of security of any country.



Information security is

a global challenge of the 21st century.



This security depends on the smooth

operation of mechanisms to prevent and combat threats in various spheres, in-

cluding cyberspace. Such a prevention “mechanism” is the formation of social

trust based on the author’s concept of the four pillars constructed in the article,

emphasizing the humanistic aspect of information security. Information secu-

rity is particularly important in conditions of ignorance or uncertainty, related

to unknown or unknowable actions of others. Information security of tomor-

row’s society will be shaped, in my opinion, by the following four pillars: social

Cf. J. Grubicka, E. Matuska, Bezpieczeństwo cyfrowe. Perspektywa organizacyjna

Przestrzeń cyfrowa ponowoczesnoś-

ci. Jednostka. Technologia. Prolaktyka

 Information security as a global challenge for the 21st century, “Studia nad



Cybersecurity – the Challenge of Information Security…

information governance, information trustworthiness, trust in information and

a positive information climate.

1. Social trust – a key social category

Social trust is the foundation of information security in cyberspace. Hence,

-

tions, since social trust is based on it, as are the pillars of information security in

cyberspace.

1.1. The concept of trust

Trust is a concept closely related to ethics and morality.



It belongs to human

discourse, which in practice means that we do not direct it towards the natural

world, but towards the social world. From this it follows that other people and







-

perience “opacity of other people’s intentions.”



Trust directed at objects is only

appropriate when they are the products of human activity, because in this way

we indirectly express trust in the people who created them. By using the term

trust in relation to objects or natural events we metaphorically give them human



Trust in an object is the knowledge or belief that its actions, future state or properties

will turn out to be in accordance with our wishes. If we do not have such certainty, trust

is also accompanied by hope. The object of trust can be anything, e.g. a person, animal,

object, substance, institution, society, God. In the case of interpersonal relationships, trust

usually refers to the honesty of the other party towards us, which does not necessarily

mean honesty towards others, e.g. in a criminal group. Trust may or may not be recip-



sometimes particularly valuable in crisis situations. Instilling trust is also a common mo-

dus operandi of criminals, especially fraudsters. The emotion of trust is also experienced

by more intelligent animals (entry zaufanie

Zaufanie, accessed 19.12.2024). Cf. M. Szymczak (ed.), Słownik języka polskiego



  Zaufanie. Fundament społeczeństwa,  





A.B. Seligman, The Problem of Trust

Wiesław Babik

characteristics.



To trust, however, means to have the conviction that one can





According to Eric Uslaner, the elementary type of trust is normative trust,



a general view of human nature and mostly does not depend on personal expe-

rience or the assumption that others are trustworthy (…) normative trust is the

command to treat people as if they are trustworthy. It is a paraphrase of the gold-



others share your basic moral values and therefore should be treated by you as

you would like to be treated by them.”





         

to this, “to trust is to believe, to move to the side of faith that cannot be reduced



to trust someone we have a constant eye on and whose actions we can directly

control.”



Francis Fukuyama, whose concept of trust is on the borderline of the nor-

mative trend, considers trust in terms of social capital. According to him, trust

is “a mechanism based on the assumption that other members of a community

are characterized by honest and cooperative behaviour based on commonly held

norms.”



These norms can be both religious and secular in nature.

In interpersonal relationships, we do not have the ability to directly or fully

control the actions of others.



Therefore, trust can be understood as “a strategy

for dealing with the freedom of other entities or agendas.”



A person is constantly

in a situation of uncertainty in relation to the future actions of others, over which

they do not have any control and also do not know how others will react to their

 Zaufanie…, 

E. Uslaner, Zaufanie strategiczne i zaufanie normatywne,     -

gunia-Borowska (eds.), Socjologia codzienności,    



A. Giddens, Nowoczesność i tożsamość, 

p. 27.

F. Fukuyama, Zaufanie. Kapitał społeczny a droga do dobrobytu,  -



 Zaufanie…, p. 66.

J. Dunn, Trust and Political Agency, in: D. Gambetta (ed.), Trust Making and Breaking

Cooperative Relations

Cybersecurity – the Challenge of Information Security…

actions and can not in any way prepare for it.



This means that “uncertainty and

risk are inherent in the human condition”



, including trust.



we are dealing with trust, which belongs to the discourse of subjectivity which

means that trust is seen as a strategy for dealing with uncertainty and the inabil-

ity to control the course of the future.



According to this assumption, trust is

“a bet made on the uncertain future actions of other people.”



In practice, this

means that trust is made up of two elements: belief and the way it is expressed

in practice.

The literature distinguishes four basic ways of expressing trust, which can

occur separately or simultaneously in a single act of trust:

1. 

-

ests.



In this case, “the trusted party does not commit to anything, they may

not even be aware that someone is placing their trust in them.”



2. 

is the expected reactions of others to the trust we place in them.



In this

sense, trust involves “allowing other people (understood either literally or



that is important to the one who places trust in them, in a situation where

such care involves the exercise of some form of authority.”



 

person in order to oblige them to meet our expectations.



4. 

in order to provoke an analogous reaction in the interaction partner, that is,

to bring about a situation of mutual trust.



 Zaufanie…, 



Ibidem, p. 67.

Ibidem, p. 69.



 

 

R. Hardin, Trusting Persons, Trusting Institutions, in: R. Zeckhauser (ed.), Strategy and

Choice

 Zaufanie…, 

A. Baier, Moral Prejudices: Essays on Ethics, 



 Zaufanie…, op. cit., p. 76.

Ibidem, p. 78.

Wiesław Babik

The content of trust varies dramatically depending on the situation, which

means that trust is determined by the situational context, in which the key is



tive in nature. Absolute trust is very rare and is most often demonstrated in patho-

logical situations.





-



full responsibility for their actions. Failure to live up to social trust is a violation

of norms and carries certain sanctions. A key role in increasing public trust in

social institutions is played by the legal system, which should be the foundation

of cohesion and stability of the entire social organization. In order to increase the

sense of stability of the social order it is necessary to guarantee the consistency

and unquestionability of the rules, which should be guarded by the constitu-



who will represent them with dignity and professionalism when dealing with

clients or petitioners.



These people should remember that they function as “ac-

cess points”



to the system and are obliged to properly represent the institution

in which they work and the system of which they are a part.

In carrying out their duties, they should bear in mind that “attitudes of trust

-

riences gained at access points (…) Bad experiences at access points can lead

either to resigned cynicism or, where possible, to complete withdrawal from the

system.”



1.2. Types of trust

-







 



A. Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity, 

Ibidem, pp. 90, 91.



  Wymiary zaufania i problem zaufania negatywnego w Polsce, “Ruch



Cybersecurity – the Challenge of Information Security…



know: family, friends and acquaintances. It is an attitude or disposition towards

relationships with other people, a certain degree of acceptance of risk or harm

that may occur during interaction with another person.



It is located in the “stock

of handy knowledge”, forming socially approved, that is, taken for granted and

self-understood natural behaviour in typical situations.



It is rarely the subject

           -

son establishes relationships are treated as if they have the same stock of cache

knowledge (the presumption that the world is the same for everyone).



Generalized trust is trust in strangers based on direct experience of living in

society, daily relationships with friends, family, neighbours, colleagues and oth-



creates the rationale for generalized trust.



Institutional trust is based primarily on indirect experience, transmitted in-

formation about institutions or political leaders. Lack of institutional trust can



who lead democratic institutions and other agencies that implement public pro-

grammes, from general trust in the democratic system and democratic proce-

dures.



According to Bo Rothstein “special” type of public institution produces



the work of said institutions. The basic institutions that create social trust are

law and order bodies such as courts, the police and the military.



 



because they trust others.



The aforementioned Francis Fukuyama argues that, with regard to trust, we

can speak of gradually expanding concentric circles of trust, or the so-called

 

A. Schütz, The Stranger, in: A. Brodersen (ed.), Collected Papers. Studies in Social The-

ory, 

J. Turner, Struktura teorii socjologicznej, 

p. 414.

 Wymiary…, 



Ibidem, p. 218.



B. Rothstein, Social Trust and Honesty in Government: A Causal Mechanism Approach,

        Creating Social Trust in Post-

-Socialist Transitions, 



 Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, Simon



Wiesław Babik

“trust horizon”: from the most direct interpersonal relationships to a more ab-

stract reference to public objects. The smallest horizon includes trust in family

members, which is most characterized by intimacy and closeness. Then we talk

about trust in people we know personally, whom we identify by name and with

whom we interact directly, such as friends, neighbours, work acquaintances

and business partners. This trust is also characterized by a high level of intima-

cy and closeness. The wider circle of trust includes members of society whom

we know indirectly or personally only through individual representatives, e.g.

residents of our locality or employees of our company The most distant hori-

zon and the widest circle of trust includes people with whom we think we have

something in common, although they are mostly “absent others” because we

do not enter into direct relations with them, and only our imagination links

them into actual collectivities, e.g. compatriots or members of some groups.







directed towards the unpredictable actions of others, and consequently also to-



their actions are characterized by varying degrees of complexity. Based on this

assumption, he proposed the author’s very detailed typology of trust.



1.3. Dimensions of trust

Actions that are expressions of trust are found in three areas of reality that

are considered complementary. They make up the complex three-dimensional

status of trust. On this basis, we view trust as a relationship, a personality ten-

dency and a cultural rule.

The relational dimension of trust is dealt with by the theory of rational

choice. The basic premise of this concept is that both trusting and trusted in-

dividuals are rational individuals seeking to maximize their own gains. These

individuals evaluate the trustworthiness of a partner on the basis of available

information and rational calculations. The relationship between them is trans-

formed into a kind of game in which each partner is guided by their own ra-

tional arguments and takes into account the calculation-based rationality of the



 Zaufanie…, 



 

Cybersecurity – the Challenge of Information Security…

other in their actions.



In this view, “trust is presented as primarily a rational



[is seen] as a manifestation of interest.”



The trust entity is guided by two princi-



the loss in a risky situation. The main problem for an individual who places trust





trustworthiness of the individual or social object we want to trust.



According

to James Coleman, “when we consider whether or not to place trust in someone,

often the greatest unknown is the likelihood that the person will fail the trust

placed in him or her.”



In a situation of mutual trust between interaction partners,

we have a situation in which the trusted person reciprocates the trust of the part-

ner expecting trustworthy behaviour on their part.



In this case, it is the trusted



of continuing the relationship. In a situation of mutual distrust, on the other hand,

interaction partners suspect each other of immoral behaviour. They take all sorts

of measures to separate themselves from their partner, which prevents them from

verifying their suspicions.



Considering trust as a personality disposition, that is, the characteristics of the

trusting person, is characteristic of social psychology. This approach is related

to the so-called “basic trust” or “trust impulse”, which is seen as the result of

a successful socialization process. The presence or absence of basic trust is a fac-



the granting or withdrawal of trust in relation to others.



Trust viewed as a cultural rule is the domain of the cultural approach. Ac-

cording to this assumption, it is the normative rules inherent in a given culture



Trust is directed toward social groups rather than individual relationships or in-

dividuals. In a given culture, trust rules apply both to those who bestow trust

and to those who are trusted. This means that at the same time there are norms



 



R. Hardin, Trusting…, op. cit., p. 187.



  Zaufanie…, 



J. Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory, 

p. 102.



A. Giddens, Nowoczesność…, 

 Zaufanie

 



Wiesław Babik

that obligate trust and norms that obligate one to behave in a trustworthy manner.



Modern societies can be divided into societies that operate according to a culture

of trust characterized by situations in which people not only routinely act on the

basis of trust, but are also culturally encouraged to do so, and those that operate

according to a culture of distrust, the so-called “culture of cynicism.”



1.4. Functions of trust



human activity. In the era of changes concerning both the organization and func-

tioning of the modern world, trust is closely related to new forms of organizing







In the literature many

functions can be found of trust considered from the perspective of various criteria.

Most often, however, the functions of trust are analysed from two perspectives: the



which the relationship takes place, that is, the group or community.







actions toward those people, i.e. the expression of trust in action. Trust releases hu-

man subjectivity and triggers creative unconstrained and energetic actions toward

people. Interactions with people we trust are free from fears, suspicion and caution,

which allows for greater spontaneity and openness.



        

who has been trusted. According to Diego Gambetta, “It is important to trust others,

but it can be just as important to enjoy their trust.”



-

ing someone’s expectations is to increase one’s credibility. To be credible “means

to live up to the trust given, to maintain someone’s trust, to continue a relationship

     Bariery budowy kultury zaufania,    -

 



 Kultura zaufania czy nieufności? O społecznym zaufaniu miesz-

kańców lokalnych społeczności, 

A. Sankowska, Zaufanie w społeczeństwie informacyjnym-





 Zaufanie…, 

 Trust and Power, 

D. Gambetta, Can We Trust Trust?, in: idem (ed.), Making and Breaking…, op. cit., p. 221.

Cybersecurity – the Challenge of Information Security…

with someone who places trust in us.” An individual who enjoys someone’s trust



to the innate human desire to live in a community, which entails a sense of rec-

ognition, sympathy or acceptance and facilitates interaction.







the suspension of certain social constraints, and therefore “the trusted person can





 

called social capital. Social capital stimulates and enhances sociability, encour-

ages joint participation in various types of communities by which, consequently,



makes it possible to establish closer relations with other people.



Trust fosters

tolerance and acceptance of what is not known, allows for the existence of cultural

-



the sense of identity and produces strong group solidarity, thereby encouraging

-

es the costs of various social transactions and increases the chances of mutually





2. Pillars of information security in cyberspace

2.1. Information governance

From the point of view of the purpose of the article, it is worth emphasizing

that “every society and economy form a certain social information order under-

stood as a complex of social norms, processes, systems and information resources

on the basis of which societies, states and economies function.”



This order is

shaped by the established norms of processes, systems and information resources,

which in total form the information infrastructure of the state. Social information

 Zaufanie

J. Coleman, Foundations…, op. cit., p. 97.



M. Cladis, A Communitarian Defense of Liberalism: Emile Durkheim and Contemporary

Social Theory, 



 Zaufanie



 Ekonomika informacji. Metody



Wiesław Babik

governance is formed in a wave of social and economic development. It is

a determinant of the quality of life in the modern world.



The term “information governance” emerged at the Fifth Conference of

         -

nized that information governance was as important as economic governance

because of the importance of the problems. The issue of information gover-



the free circulation of information and the wider and balanced dissemination

of information, including freedom of information and diversity of information

sources and means. Since then, the problem of information governance has





any regulation on the issue, believing that information circulation should be





The social order of information also immanently includes civil rights,

including the right to information. This means that “every citizen has the



and function in society and the state. Restricting, obstructing or providing

information that is untrue, unreliable or misinformation is a violation and

infringement of human and civil rights.”



Hence, every citizen should have

access to the appropriate amount of information that is necessary for them

to exercise their other human and civil rights. Evident here is a high correla-

tion between the development of legislation, privileges and regulations and

the necessary knowledge that everyone should possess in order to develop

properly and be able to adapt to the given environment.



This applies in

particular to information policy, information law, customs and good prac-

tices, and the situation that the law is not a sham, is observed and respected,

and that there is an inevitability of punishment for non-compliance with the

law and the law is fair.



Cf. J. Miluska, Ład społeczny jako determinanta jakości życia-





 



T. Galewski, Psychologiczne bariery informacyjne w społeczeństwie informacyjnym,

   

no. 29), p. 188.

Cybersecurity – the Challenge of Information Security…

2.2. Reliability of information

Information credibility is a complex and multi-faceted problem. It is a spe-



with the veracity and quality of information. This property of information is

-

quired standards of accuracy, timeliness, completeness and security. Assess-

ing the credibility of information helps in deciding whether the information



in our perception of the information, then we do not believe the information.

If the content of the message aligns with our mental model, then we accept

the information in question as credible. Thus, the credibility of information

is relativized to both the sender and the receiver of information.



Assessment

of the credibility of information also depends on the medium that conveys it.

The recipient’s opinion of the credibility of the information usually depends

on their opinion of the source of the information. The degree of intensity of

other characteristics of information helps in assessing the credibility of infor-



-



reliable.

Reliability of information is a derived attribute relative to its accuracy,

timeliness and completeness. These attributes are relativized to the recipient

of the information.



The credibility of information is also relativized to its





Thus, the

assessment of information credibility is subjective in nature and the attribute

of “being information credible” is gradable.

In the context of meeting the information needs of citizens, it is important

that the information directed to them be of high quality. The quality of in-

formation in inherent terms, i.e. in the context of its suitability to the user’s



J. Boruszewski, Jakość i wiarygodność informacji w infobrokerstwie, “Lingua ac Commu-





 



 O wiarygodności informacji

Człowiek – Media – Edukacja   

       -



Wiesław Babik

needs, results from the following attributes of information, formulated, among

others, by Vytautas Abramovich.



These are:

1. Truthfulness of information, which consists in the fact that the state of

reality has been described within the limits of error accepted as acceptable.

2. Timeliness of information, when the state of a certain reality refers to the

time when the information is received by the recipient or when it was

created.

 Reliability of information is a measure of its truthfulness and timeliness.



assumed.

4. 

to perform additional operations to transform it. It depends not only on the



which they are located and their condition.

 Relevance of information is the weight that the user ascribes to it. It is sub-



2.3. Trust in information

The relationship between trust in information and communication is indis-

putable. The classic forms of trust support are seals, signatures and initials,

i.e. communication phenomena. Other elements of trust are reputation, rec-

ommendation, reference, credibility and, above all, image. These elements

function only through communication processes. The manifestations of trust

in information can vary. Marian Golka lists “island” trust, “hierarchical” trust

and “network” trust. Let us add authorized trust and discuss them in turn. “Is-

land” trust is strongly associated with particular groups or institutions. It man-

ifests a kind of asymmetry. It is directly proportional to the sense of familiarity

and strangeness and related manifestations of communication or its absence or

low intensity.





   Filtrowanie informacji   



M. Golka, Bariery w komunikowaniu i społeczeństwo (dez)informacyjne -



Cybersecurity – the Challenge of Information Security…

“Hierarchical” trust functions on the basis of coercion or persuasion or even

manipulation. Hierarchical communication processes are inherently not sym-

metrical. Finally, “network” trust is generated on the basis of mutual commit-

ments and relationships almost exclusively through communication processes.

It is characterized by a kind of faith, since this trust is inherently manifested



Internet). Authorized trust is the result of respect for authorities. How do they

   





conditions of trust. (…) the chances of it increasing rationality in evaluating

the rationale for trust or distrust are also decreasing.”



Thus, restoring trust

in information is becoming one of the important challenges of information

security.

2.4. Information climate

The theme of information climate is one of the important pillars of informa-

tion security in cyberspace. The information climate is related to freedom of

information and freedom to express one’s views and opinions. It refers to com-

munication phenomena in society. It is a kind of metaphor built on the basis

of meteorological phenomena. It is one of the elements of the social climate,

as it relates to the prevailing conditions that favour or hinder various ways of



concern the conceptualization and systematization of this issue important for

information science. Information climate is usually associated with organiza-

tional climate.



-

ings about information emphasizing the role of its broadcasting and perception





preferred set of values regarding the circulation of various types of social in-

formation. It determines the collective awareness of the desirable handling of

Ibidem.

    Początki zainteresowań problematyką klimatu organizacyjne-

go w polskiej literaturze naukowej,  



Wiesław Babik

information and the degree of trust in information, which consequently trans-

lates into information security. An inadequate information climate can result



grassroots initiatives, hypocrisy and insincerity of speech, so-called “political

correctness” and even social alienation. It is often determined by the social

emotional climate, which in extreme cases manifests itself in the form of new-





and strikes at information security, including in cy-

berspace.

Conclusion

Information security in cyberspace continues to be one of the most import-

ant challenges of modern times. Cyberspace has a huge impact on the future

of information security of tomorrow’s society. Social information security is

the foundation of a democratic state.



The pillars of information security dis-

cussed in the article condition information security in cyberspace and empha-

size its humanistic aspect and nature. Social information governance is not

only important for social and economic development, but it is also the foun-

dation of information security and a determinant of the quality of life in the

modern world. Evaluating the trustworthiness of information not only helps in

deciding whether information is valuable, but is also an important element of

information security. Restoring trust in information is becoming one of the im-

portant social challenges of information security.



The reference to the area of

information climate being a metaphor for meteorological phenomena empha-

    

its importance in the context of information security in cyberspace. A sepa-





    Logistyka informacji   



 Społeczne bezpieczeństwo informacyjne podstawą demokratycznego państwa,





  O zaufaniu do informacji, in: B. Taraszkiewicz (ed.), Ekologia informa-

cji jako wyzwanie dla edukacji i bibliotekarstwa XXI wieku





Cybersecurity – the Challenge of Information Security…



security, including in cyberspace.



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Społeczne bezpieczeństwo informacyjne podstawą demokratycznego pań-

stwa

 Bariery budowy kultury zaufania, -



Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, Si-



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ach, Creating Social Trust in

Post-Socialist Transitions

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

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Seligman A.B., The Problem of Trust

Zaufanie. Fundament społeczeństwa, 

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wa 2004.

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nia-Borowska (eds.), Socjologia codzienności, 

  Początki zainteresowań problematyką klimatu organizacyjne-

go w polskiej literaturze naukowej



Entry zaufanie   

19.06.2024).

Cybersecurity – the Challenge of Information Security…

Summary

Cybersecurity is one of the most important contemporary challenges and also the

challenges of tomorrow’s society. It concerns both the protection of the digital sphere

of information and the sustainable development of the anthropoinsphere of the mod-

ern information society. The challenges of information security in cyberspace focus

primarily on various types of threats. In the society of tomorrow, modern information

-

rity will play an important role. Help in recognizing them and using them in solving



and media sciences. The purpose of the article is to show the potential and role of

-

ciety. This potential is represented by the four pillars of information security based on

public trust in information, highlighted in the text.

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